Thursday, December 19, 2013

Introduction and Contents of Пауэрлифтинг (Powerlifting)

One of the most important and effective ways of strengthening health and character, historically and in all cultures, has been and remains the practice of physical culture and sport. Powerlifting is a new type of sport, which appeared outside of Russia near the end of the 40s, beginning of the 50s, in the 20th century. It arrived in Russia even later, and today powerlifting is spreading dynamically throughout the entire world.

During the study of sports training as a means of achieving maximum athlete potential, scientific-methodological literature has isolated relatively independent structures of preparation: technical, physical, tactical, mental and integrated [104, 135, 144]. The contents of the following work [1, 11, 21, 31, 43, 122, 124, 134, 155, 162, 176, 185, 194, 218, 227, 289] have to do with the terminology of athletic types of sport, the choosing of the most effective methods of teaching the technical aspects of competition movements and the development of physical qualities, planning, control and accounting for training and competition stresses, and so on. However, the scientific-methodological security of the teaching-training process in this kind of sport remains underdeveloped. There is a lack of objective instrumental data about the biomechanic structures of training and competition exercises, as well as scientifically grounded recommendations on the use of specific methods in the training process of powerlifters. All the material in this monograph is split into sections of ten main chapters.

Contents:
The first chapter tells of the history and birth of powerlifting in the world, Europe and Russia, restores the interrupted link of the times, revives the continuity of present and past culture, and returns tens of sport figure names to the modern age.

The second chapter deals with terminology. Many words and phrases are of foreign origin, since powerlifting came to us from across our border. Authors did not create new terms or substitute understanding. They just systematized that which already existed in the scientific methodological sport literature of powerlifting.

The third chapter describes base theories and the scientific basics of the training process and introduces the classification of competition exercises performed in the process of training.

Once the reader gets acquainted with the fourth chapter, they will know what role the cardiovascular, respiratory and nervous system play in the process of training, since during intense physical stress there is an exchange of substances in the body. The reader will also learn how excretory functions work and what role hormones play during this process, as well as how a person’s motor processes is based off of their body’s somatotype and constitutional psychology. In addition to everything listed, the chapter looks at the work of the main muscle groups during competition exercises, as well as other physiological questions.

The material in the fifth chapter acquaints readers with the general understanding of technique in powerlifting and the phase structure of competition exercises and their periodization. The chapter presents, for the first time, biomechanic video analysis of the competition exercises, done by powerlifter athletes at the highest tier of their sport. Their technique for every form of the competition exercises is analyzed with the use of video.

The sixth chapter devotes the greatest amount of time to errors made during the practice of competition exercises, as well as factors that contribute toward these errors and methods to eliminate them. The materials in the chapter have clearly differentiated characteristics. The chapter develops and concretizes general principles of teaching beginning athletes.

From the seventh chapter, you can get information about powerlifter gear and the companies that produce the specialized clothes and footwear. Examples of bench shirts, squat suits and deadlifting suits, as well as knee wraps, straps and other gear are given in the chapter, with many photographs provided.

The eight and ninth chapters discuss methodologies to train athletes at different levels of experience. 

Examples of training programs for athletes are provided as well.

In the tenth chapter, readers will learn about proper eating for athletes and methods for recovery.

In this way, the authors of this monograph have laid out the material that will help readers creatively and practically approach the building of a training process, using primarily new information. Methodologies of training processes are recommended as well.

Scientific and methodological works of both domestic and foreign authors that study strength sports were used during the work on this monograph. Data from scientific studies, conducted at the department of theory and methodologies of resistance training, boxing and fencing at the Bashkirov Institute of Physical Education was used as well. The general experience of leading coaches and strong athletes of the Republic of Bashkorostan and Russia was used as well.

Chapters one and two are written by the esteemed Russian trainer B. I. Sheiko with the doctor of education, professor and esteemed Russian trainer P. S. Gorylev.

The materials of the fourth chapter (4.1 – 4.9) were prepared by the doctor of biological sciences, Professor E. R. Rymancheva. The materials in chapter 3, 5 through 9 and chapter 4.10 are written by the esteemed trainer of Russia, B. I. Sheiko.
The materials of the tenth chapter were prepared by R. A. Chedovym.
The authors of the monograph “Powerlifting” give special thanks to the doctor of education sciences, Professor G. P. Vinogradov and to the doctor of educational sciences, Professor A. V. Samsonovoi. Without their highly professional competency, the monograph could not have been completed.

Special appreciation to the doctor of technical sciences, Professor S. V. Fetisov, who took it upon himself to analyze the complicated biomechanic systems exhibited during the competition exercises of powerlifting, and also to the senior lecturer of the Bashkirov Institute, E. V. Ohlieva for providing over 500 photographs.

Wednesday, December 18, 2013

Five Men Who Planted the Seeds of Powerlifting

Translated from the pen of Sheiko

The story of powerlifting counts many adepts and exemplary athletes in different countries of the world. More than any other century, strong men appeared in the 19th century, though many of them were heavy, with poor mobility, who stood out based solely on their raw strength. There were many championships, which included: the picking up of barrels of various volumes, the pressing of two dumbbells, the pressing or pushing of weights, lying on the back, squatting with weight on the shoulders, squatting with kettlebells in extended-upwards arms, the pressing of weights with the legs while lying on the back. Competitions were held with an awkward “orb” barbell. Big popularity was enjoyed by the competition of lifting weights from the floor. Each athlete tried to stand out in those movements, in which he had the biggest chance of success. One of the first famed strongmen of the 19th century was the 136kg Canadian Louis Cyr.

Louis Cyr (1863 – 1912)
Louis Cyr was called a (North) American wonder, as he competed in and won all tourneys. Though he was only 5 ft 10 inch, his biceps and muscles earned the respect of other lifters.
He pushed a train car up a slope, with one hand lifted 131 ¼ pounds (59.5 kg) and held it at a right angle, picked up with one arm a barrel of cement weighing 433 pounds, put it on top of a piece of paper, and then, by slightly lifting the barrel, removed the paper.
Once, under the eyes of a crowd, he lifted and held on his back a platform, on which were 18 people, with a total weight of 4337 pounds (1967 kg). To modern day, this record has yet to be beaten.
In 1886, Louis emerged victorious against 40-year-old American Richard Pennel.
From 1895 to 1900, Louis Cyr traveled through many countries, gathered worldly experience and he was officially named the strongest person on the planet.
Louis Cyr is considered the first athlete, who started to do the press while lying on a bench (before it was done while lying on the floor). His best records while weighing 136kg (299lb): press with one arm – 124kg (273lb); two arms – 150kg (330 lb); deadlift[0] – 860kg (1895lb); one-armed deadlift – 447kg (985lb); deadlift with one finger – 247kg (544lb); back lift[1] - 1950kg (4300lb) (this is considered to be the highest result in modern history of strength athletics).
Moreover, Louis has a large collection of officially registered records:
·         A 73.7k kg (162.5 lb) one-armed kettlebell press, 36 reps.
·         Lifting of weight from the ground with two hands of 860.5kg (1897 lbs)
·         One-armed lifting of weight from the ground of 448kg (987 lbs)
·         One-fingered lifting of weight from the ground of 251kg (553 lbs)

James Kennedy (1860-1894)
In 1893, in New York, there was a contest that was meant to find the champion of the world in the lifting of heavy weights. It attracted the strongest athletes of the time. From Canada came Louis Cyr, from Europe – Eugen Sandow. The winner turned out to be the James Walter Kennedy, an American. He lifted a metal sphere of 36 poods and 24.5 lbs (1320.5lbs or 598.9kg) four inches off the platform, for two repetitions. Not one of the other athletes was able to repeat this feat. After the setting of this record, James Kennedy only performed in demonstrations of his musculature.

Louis Attila (1844-1925)
Born in Germany in the city of Karlsruhe as Louis Durlacher, Louis began interested in strength training in earnest after meeting Felice Napoli, an Italian circus strongman. Durlacher asked Napoli to teach him. In 1863, at the age of 19, Louis changed his last name to Attila and began to perform under it as a strongman.
In 1886, Attila opened a gym in Brussels, Belgium. It was there that he met Eugen Sandow. The two were often seen together, and up to 1889 toured together. In 1889, they parted ways: Sandow left for Italy, and Attila – London. In London, Attila opened his second gym. Soon after, Sandow and Attila announced a renewal of their temporary partnership, but by 1893, they were once again followed separate paths. Sandow left for America.
In 1893, Attila arrived in New York on the invitation of Richard K. Fox, the publisher of The Police Gazette. There Attila opened his most famous gym, where he taught an entire generation of American physical culturists[2] using progressive resistance.[3] His gym, on New York’s Broadway,[4] was a Mecca for professionals and the celebrities of the athletic world. At his gym trained: John Pierpont Morgan, Alfred Vanderbilt, Florenz Ziegfeld and John Philip. Attila achieved success in his coaching role thanks to an emphasis on committed training and progressive overload. He discovered the mechanics of bodybuilding, as we know them today. In that age, many protested against the use of heavy weights, because they were afraid that they could bring about trauma, muscle tears and even death. This was part of the genius of Attila – he admitted freely that more big weights were the only reliable method for strength development and the building of a massive body. In that time, this method of training was revolutionary.
Attila was a pioneer of using strength training as a means to achieve results in sports. He was one of the first trainers that personally began training the rich and famous. He was a supporter of equal rights and opportunity for women in the gym[5] and insisted that strength training slowed the process of aging.
Attila continued to lift heavy weights up and through his 77th year, and was a great strongman until his death. He died on March 15, 1925. Attila’s influence on the growth of world athletics is impossible to overvalue.
At the turn of the 20th century, rough and formless strongmen began to fall out of fashion. To replace the systemless strongman exercises arrived new forms of sport: weightlifting, bodybuilding (physical culture), and conditioning-focused forms of strength training. At the sources of new growth and development of strength stood a man, who is today considered the founder of physical culture: Eugen Sandow.

Eugen Sandow (1867 – 1925)
Though Sandow belonged among the strongmen of the previous era, he was already underlining the importance of beautiful composition.[6]
Friedrich-Wilhelm Müller, later in life to be known under his pseudonym Eugen Sandow, was born in Konigsberg, Prussia to a Russian mother and a German merchant[7] father. Friedrich left Prussia in 1885, in order to avoid military service.
At nineteen years of age, young Sandow began performing in circuses as a strongman and acrobat. In 1887, on the platforms in Brussels, he was noticed by a famed circus strongman: Louis Durlacher, famous under the name of Attila.
When Sandow arrived in London in 1899, he opened his own gymnasium, which he called a studio of physical culture. The walls were trimmed with wood and adorned with giant mirrors in gilt frames. In the corners stood pots with palm trees in them, and the floor was covered with Persian rugs. The studio attracted a distinguished[8] clientele, who, under the instruction of Sandow began to practice difficult exercises. Sandow not only had beautiful muscles and could perform awe-inspiring tricks of strength, but he also wrestled. He earned the fame of being an unbeatable athlete in his sport.
One of his favorite numbers was a performance with a large ball-barbell, the total weight of which was 145kg (319lbs). It was made up of a bar of 120 cm in length and two spheres on the end, with a diameter of 90 cm each (barbells with sets of discs and adjustable dumbbells didn’t appear until two decades later). Sandow would carefully one-arm press the bar above his head, before dropping it and immediately catching it, after which he would return the bar to the platform. After the noise from the audience died down, the spheres would open and two fairly short men emerged, one from each sphere.
In the span of four minutes, he could do two hundred pushups[9]. By propping his heels on one chair and the nape of his neck[10] on another, Sandow could hold two people on his chest, and in his outstretched hand – a 22kg (48.5lb) kettlebell. A platform would be placed on his chest, and he held could hold three horses on it. A different number included the same platform, but with a piano and 8-man orchestra instead.
Another circus number was the handkerchief trick. While holding a 24kg (52lb) kettlebell in each hand, he stood on a handkerchief and did a backflip, landing exactly on the same spot he started on.
In 1895, Sandow successfully performed a difficult trick: he lifted and pressed, with his right hand, a 115kg (253.5lb) barbell, before transferring it to his left hand, crouching and laying on his back. Without lowering the barbell, he would stand back up.
Sandow advertised his strength achievements as an accomplishment of advanced science and a revival of the ancient Greek ideal (his trainer was Attila). In the beginning of the 90s,[11] Sandow displayed his prowess across England and Europe by beating all of the strongmen and wrestlers that wished to test his strength. After achieving European recognition, Sandow spent four years in America (1894-1897), where he also became a star.
On September 4, 1901, in a large London concert hall, with the cheers of British royalty in his ears, Sandow successfully led the first tourney of beauty, athletic symmetry and body composition in history. It was called the “Great Competition”. The judges consisted of three celebrities: Sandow, Arthur Conan-Doyle and the sculptor Charles Lawes. The tournament had 56 participants, athletes from all over Great Britain. The winner was William L. Murray from Great Britain, who was given a bronze statuette of “Sandow with a ball-barbell in one hand”, made by the sculptor Frederick Pomeroy. A replica of this statuette is still awarded in the contests “Mr. Olympia” and “Ms. Olympia”.
By 1905, Britain was host to a network of physical salons and institutions of physical culture, all under Sandow. Soon afterward, he completed several world tours (South Africa, India, Japan, Australia, New Zealand) to spread the knowledge of his system.
Sandow made an enormous contribution to the methodology of strength training. He wrote several books on his methods: Sandow’s System of Physical Training (1894), Strength and How To Obtain It (1897), Body-Building[12] (1904), Strength and Health: How illness can be successfully overcome with physical culture (1912) and Life is Movement: Physical Reconstruction and the Regeneration of People (1919).
In 1911, he trained his dearest client: the king of England himself, George V, invited Sandow to be his personal trainer. The king, of course, did not become an athlete, but Sandow acquired a number of other rich clients. For his work in propagating a healthy lifestyle and physical culture, Eugen Sandow was given the honorary Professor of Physical Growth title.

Bernarr Adolf Macfadden (1868 – 1955)
In 1902, Alan Calvert began production of loadable barbells. He also published several courses for strength training (which were sent with his set of barbells and plates), the most popular of which was a course called “Super Strength”. It described a series of 8-10 base exercises with the barbell, which were recommended to be done three times a week, one set of 5-20 reps each. This was the first training program for mass application, and it was created 110 years ago.
One of the people, for whom a practice of physical culture because its own brand of religion, was a businessman – publisher named Bernarr Adolf Macfadden.
Macfadden is an example of an “unhealthy fanatic[13].” In 1903, Macfadden organized a whole series of contents in New York, in Madison Square Garden, under the name of “The World’s Most Perfectly Developed Man[14]”. The winner of a contest won, along with his new title, one thousand dollars. Competitors included boxers, rowers, weightlifters and other athletes.
In his lifetime, Bernarr Macfadden wrote 150 books on how to be healthy and strong. He also published several magazines, the biggest of which was Physical Culture, devoted to forging[15] muscle and physical exercise. Macfadden exposed his slogan to the public: “Weakness is a crime. Don’t be a criminal!” and the slogan was heard.

In the beginning of the 20s[16], a few years after the First World War, a young German athlete named Henry “Milo” Steinborn wowed America with his feats of strength. The trick he was most known for was his ability to throw the barbell up to his shoulders without using any other equipment, then squatting it multiple times. Milo became the first person in the world able to hoist 500lb (226kg) to his shoulders before squatting the weight. After him, squatting became a vital exercise for any athlete. Eventually, squat racks were invented, thanks to which athletes could bring to their shoulders a weight large enough to squat, but without spending the effort on lifting it into position first.

In the 30s, Mark Berry, publisher of the magazine Strength, laid out his recommendations for exercise, which were henceforth known as the system of deep squatting. The program, which included six to eight exercises, was based on the training of famed boxer and lifter Henry Steinborn. In general, his training consisted of heavy leg and back work, supplemented with an equal amount of rest and food.

At the end of the 40s through the beginning of the 50s in the United States, Canada, England, Australia, Sweden, Norway and other countries barbell lifts became popular almost at the same time. At first, these lifts were called “odd”.  Athletes performed sitting and standing versions of curls, behind-the-neck press and the traditional squat, floor press and deadlift. There were however, no competitions. Of course, like in every sport, there were enthusiasts.

                                                                                                                                     



[0] It should be noted that while the text does say "deadlift," a deadlift in the context of 19th century strongman means the ROM most likely left quite a lot to be desired.
[1] The Russian word for this is приподнимания, which means “slight lift.”
[3] Progressive overload, training, linear training, etc.
[4] The street.
[5] The original text says “тренажерном зале”, which means a hall with treadmills, but this could refer to the overall gym as well.
[6] Composition of the body, symmetry.
[7] Literal translation: stall vendor
[8] In this case insinuating that they had money to pay for this instruction
[9] “To the ground” pushups, meaning complete pushups.
[10] затылок
[11] The 1890s, that is.
[12] In Russian, the title is actually “Бодибилдинг: человек в действии” which translates to “Bodybuilding: The Person and the Movement”
[13] Rather, someone who’s fanaticism is so intense that it damages their health.
[14] The title in the text is actually “Man with the most complete body composition in America” but outside sources point to the given being the proper name of the contests.
[15] The literal translation is forging, meaning a general development of body and mind, in regard to hypertrophy and general fitness. The Russian word is закалка.
[16] 1920s.

Monday, October 14, 2013

Methods of Teaching Competition Exercise Technique, Part 1

For new athletes and those, who find themselves on the path of growth in their athletic mastery, when training includes a primary focus on the learning of the new and the improvement of the already internalized, we use the term “teaching-training exercise”, and for this reason teaching and the act of training[1] are two sides of the same training process. Athletes, who reach the level of the highest sports mastery and that participate in competitions at the national Russian level, as well as international, treat the training process on the level of a professional preparation[51].
The weakest part of the technical preparation of a powerlifter is the process of internalizing and improving sport technique, since today there is a lack of vital and developed methodologies for this process, due to the large quantity of blank spots in the understanding of the nature of sport technique.

6.1 General principles of teaching
An important goal of teaching is the acquiring of ability, and then turning that ability into a strong skill. Motor skills are characterized by awareness, an ability to automate the movement, strength, mobility and a capability for variety. The strength of the motor skill is determined by conditioned-reflex ties, strengthened in the process of thousands of repetitions. Variety allows for the possibility of changing the form of habitual movements on the fly. Variety also allows for the changing of psychophysical factors and their subsequent manifestations. These factors and manifestations will vary, influenced by the athlete’s general purpose in sport as well as their specific goals.
The teaching of competition exercises in powerlifting is associated with the solving of problems[2], characterized by the learning of any motor movement. Training is built upon the basis of primary principles of sport activities and depends on general biological regularities, the forming of motor skills and general skill, having but some specification when compared to teaching technique of other kind of sport.
The improvement of athletic technique continues throughout the entire training process of an athlete – this is an integral part of sports mastery growth.
Didactic principles, which are the pedagogic basis for teaching and training, express methodological regularities of the teaching process and a big part of this are the required-during-implementation educational problems[3]. These are the principles of awareness and activity, clarity, accessibility and individualization, systematically and gradually increasing the demand on the body as regards to maximum stress.

Principles of awareness and activity. The performance of the pedagogic process in large part is determined by how aware and active the students are. An understanding of the basis of the assignments and an active approach will quicken the learning process and will contribute toward the proper results of the completed movements. For the realization of this principle, it is extremely important to be interested in the subject, intelligibly explain the learned material, begin to understand its point and assignments, intensify the process with self-learning and self-disciplining. For learning, words have the greatest meaning. Through words the principle of awareness is actualized.

The principle of visual aids. Visual aids directly related to learning, as it quickens whatever presentation of whatever fact and eases the process of mastering the material. It expects the broad use of not only the visual, but of audio analyzers as well. Visual perception is an important part of learning. It creates an objective display of sports technique in the consciousness of students. Important among the methods of demonstrating clarity are the actual examples of movements given by either the instructor or a better student (for example, the snatch, the proper placement of hand on barbell or the proper leg position, and so on). The example is first realized in looking at the whole, then by looking at the details, then again at the whole. Often, elements of technique are better understood when posters, photos, drawings and other visual aids are used. The further a student goes in studying the technique, the more correct he or she will recreate it during practice. After the analysis of video stills, for example, the athlete will be able to correctly draw the general scheme of the motion he or she is studying.
In the process of teaching the competition exercises of powerlifting, visual aids and example play an especially vital role, as the activities of those that are interested in learning are mostly concerned with practical applications of the information and because one of the specific goals of this training is the all-around growth of organs in the nervous system. Demonstrating the exercises with short explanations, video stills, schemas, drawings, photos, posters or watching a video of European and worldwide powerlifter champions are all important methods to ensure conformity to this principle.

The principle of accessibility and individualization. This principle reflects the proper distribution of the material over the entire period of training in an even way and is realized through the acquiring of new technical skills through specific training or training stresses.
When considering this principle it is absolutely necessary to build teaching and training methods with regards to the actual ability and characteristics of the trainee, specifically their age and gender, level of physical preparedness and mastery. The special importance of this principle is due to the fact that powerlifting exhibits intense effects on bodily functions necessary for life. Therefore it is absolutely necessary to divide up the material to be learned, so that it can be learned in a sustainable fashion without posing a health risk. The accessibility of physical exercises is directly correlated with the coordination complexity required, the intensity, the length of time effort needs to be exerted for, and so on. A complete cooperation between possibilities and difficulties marks the optimal quantity of accessibility.
Individualization, in this case, refers to the building of the entire process of physical training, and the utilization of methods and forms of exercises that realize within themselves an individual approach to the students, as well as creating terms for the continued growth of their abilities. Individualization does not exclude the availability of general methods, appropriate for all athletes. For this reason, we will combine individualization with the general requirements of the pedagogic process, and it can be provided for during group training [50].

The principle of systematic sequencing. The gist of this principle is in regularity, progression and the interrelatedness of training and the system of alternation of stresses with rest. It is obvious that regular training gives an incomparably stronger effect than episodic[4] training. Even a short break can begin the process of the fading of conditioned reflex connections, the lowering of the previously-attained levels of functional possibility and even a regression of certain morphological indicators. According to research, certain regressive changes begin to appear even on the 5th through 7th days of a break (N. V Zimkin, co-authors: D. L. Ferdman, O. I. Fainshmidt and others). According to many experts, non-systematic and chaotic introduction of the material will create difficulties and slow the process of learning. It is necessary to build teacher-training knowledge so that the basics of competition exercise technique are learned in the first stage, and then later it is necessary to teach the rest of the elements, moving from more important assignments to less important. This kind of system allows for the correct preparation of athletes for their participation in competitions and generally raises their technical mastery.

The principle of gradually increasing the requirements for maximum stress (the principle of being dynamic).
This principle is the most important in the entire system of sports preparation. It is based on the collection of quantitative changes, which precede specific characteristic changes. If this principle of teaching is followed, the use of maximum stresses goes by painlessly and in the end will produce a positive result. The physical qualities of strength, speed and endurance will undergo intense growth.
The experience of the best Russian trainers and masters shows that without the use of large and maximal stresses, it is impossible to achieve high levels of sport ability in today’s sports. If the loads are not to the point where they cause overtraining and fatigue, then the larger the volume of the loads, the more significantly and stronger the adaptations of restructuring turn out. Intense loads contribute to the processes of recovery and “super-recovery[5]”. This is experimentally shown, in part, in the example of restoring energy resources of the muscles (L. I Yampolskaya, N. N. Yakovlev and others).
In this way, understanding the aforementioned principles of teaching happens in the process of learning the theory, practical ability and skills and it is part of a singular pedagogic process. Not one of the pointed out principles can be realized in full if other principles are ignored. Only on the basis of unity can the principles reach their individual full potential.

6.2 Methods of Teaching
In the process of teaching practical experience and skills, as well as sport technique in powerlifting, different methods are used, the main point of which is the creation of correct and clear remembering of the movement patterns of how to perform the exercises. Not one of the shown methods, used in powerlifting, cannot by itself assure the fast and effective teaching of sports technique.

The method of the spoken word. During the teaching of sport technique, the spoken word is used to offer help during the actual movement in the form of supplementary clarification, instruction and commands, different forms of assignments, auditory grading and questioning, discussion, as well as mutual clarification and reports. Often, words are needed to explain the proper correlation between different elements of the exercise, and to compare the performance of the student with a factual[6] demonstration of some exercise. Analysis and deconstruction of the completion of an assignment in the form of a chat allows the trainer to assess the results of the teaching and prepare assignments for the next lesson. Words need to be specific and clear. It is impossible for a lesson to take place without there being some kind of explanation by the trainer or the teacher, and without auditory comments on the topic of errors in technique. Reminders and hints during the performance of the assignment helps make the movement more correct not only in direction, but in amplitude, with a show of muscle strength, either relaxing of tightening. Side by side with regular explanations the instructor can use an example-centered explanation, using previously acquired skills.

The method of using visual aids. Visual education and the sensation of visual movement give a more or less objective display of sport technique in the consciousness of the student. This includes the display of video stills, demonstrations of to-be-practiced skills of athletes of a higher skill level, the use of visual aids, which include the use of drawings, schemas, photographs that reproduce a specific characteristic of movement and the rules for its completion, separate phases of motor activities.

The method of exercising allows the affecting of (most importantly) on the motor sphere of the trainees. During this there slowly forms a movement image of the exercise, movement ability and finally the skill itself. This method is always used in conjunction with other highlighted methods. Correctly combining them allows the instructor to quicker teach the exercise.
The method of exercising is used in whole movements and partial completion of the exercises.

The method of holistic exercise. Learning the movements through a holistic (whole) method while isolating details. This method can be used for the teaching of non-complicated movements and exercises that need to be learned first. This can also be used while training athletes who possess a good grasp of movement coordination.

The method of partial exercises. This method is used in the process of learning movement patterns in the separated form followed by the unifying of parts in a whole. For example, the movement is split into parts or phases. Then, the athlete masters each part of the movement separately, and only then the whole exercise. This method is used not only in the process of teaching, but in training, when it is necessary to fix or better a certain part of an exercise.
It is common to isolate two main parts of the partial exercise:
a)      A proper partials method with regards to using relatively large movement assignments, that encompass one part of a couple phases of the to-be-learned exercise.
b)      The method of solving narrow movement assignments (problems), used to focus on the performance of specific movements and phases of the exercise, posture, the strengthening of joints, the moment of the amount of movement, and the methods of fixing errors in movements.
Choosing one method or the other depends on the abilities and preparedness of the trainee, qualifications of the teacher and their creative activity.

The combination method. The use of this method gives the possibility of more flexibly regulating loads and rest, expedient the direction of growth of vital characteristics and skills. It is used to uphold enough of a physical work capacity and positive emotions, and also to create vital psychological background for the betterment of the technique of the performed exercise. This is an effective method, as it unifies the method of partial exercises and the method of whole exercise.

The method of programmed teaching. The training of the students occurs over the optimal programming, spanning and periodizing monthly, weekly and lesson-by-lesson plans for training with strictly programmed contents of exercises and accurate regulated loads of size and direction. It allows for the show of the highest requirements in terms of functional possibilities of the organism and correlates to their greater growth. This method has great meaning for the growth and discipline of purposefulness, determination, perseverance, self-control, and the ability to overcome obstacles.

The method of using technical methods. This method provides for the methodical organization of showing the actual exercises, rules and guidelines for their doing. There are, in general, three kinds of information applied: visual, audial, tactile. The most valuable apparatus for quick information, for example, the use of a video camera will give the athlete a distant look at his or her technique during an exercise. One of the important qualities this method has it the possibility for reconstructing a movement in a dynamic form, or in a slower tempo, carving out individual phases for analysis (what we would call “video stills”).

The conjugate method. This method is characterized by the simultaneous solving of training problems in different categories of preparation (for example, the growth of physical qualities and movement skills).

Varieties of the conjugate method depend on the combination of different ways of preparation, for example:
-          Physical + technical preparation;
-          Physical + tactical preparation;
-          Physical + technical + tactical preparation;
-          Technical + tactical preparation, and so on.

Varieties of the conjugate method stand out due to their diversity and depend on training assignments. By depending on the specific variety this method has quite an impact on different forms of physical characteristics and forms of preparation. The big feature of the conjugate method is the complex (conjugate) solving of training assignments [31].

The game method. This is characterized by the availability of a game scenario without the limits of rules or at least with simplifies rules. It is used in the process of physical disciplining, not only in training beginners in the movements, but for the growth of different abilities[7] and the complex realization of movement activities in difficult conditions. It allows for the practice of qualities and abilities like agility, the speed of orientation (getting oriented), independence, initiative and even increases the emotionality of the training. The most important thing to keep in mind for this method is that when switching between focuses of movement and motivation.

Competition method – this involves doing the exercise under circumstances imitating that of a competition. It is used for the disciplining of moral qualities[8], physical characteristics of the athletes, for tactical preparation and upcoming meets. It is characterized by the full or part modeling of competition activities.

Variants of the competition method are as follows:
-          Training games or competition (with a stronger or weaker rival, or with an unusual one – for example with a left-handed person, in non-standard conditions, for example on a shortened platform, and so on.);
-          Competition with the use of an allowance (handicap);
-          Controlled starts.
The secret to the competition method lies in the realization of different sides of preparation [31].

The method of checking knowledge, ability and skills. This is used in the process of estimates, competitions, tests, exams and everyday observations.

6.3. The forming of movement knowledge and skills.

Movement skills play an important role in the life of every person. The founder of domestic pedagogy K. D. Ushinskiy (1867), said on this subject: that if a person did not have an aptitude for a particular skill, then they could not move a single step in their growth. Movement skills have a great educational value, since in training them it is important to have active, creative thinking, aimed at the analysis and synthesis of movement. Having ability and having the specific skill differs from one another primarily in the degree of their mastery, that is their confidence in the movement from the perspective of the person’s knowledge.

Movement ability – this is a level of mastery of movement actions in which the movement is realized during active thinking [201].

The role of movement ability in physical education can be different. In some cases, ability leads to skills, if it is necessary to achieve perfect wielding of technical movement activities. In other cases movement ability can be produced without ever turning the ability into a true skill. In this case they are auxiliary [219]. In the forming of motor actions, there appears an original movement ability. The understanding of “motor ability”, just like the understanding of “motor skill”, predominantly depends on the technical side of the athlete’s ability to complete motor actions. Skills serve as the base for new abilities. Motor activity can be successful if it is based on varied, solidly formed skills. The larger the stock of skills, the more versatile and effective will the [motor] skills be. In sport, this largely determines the mastery of the athlete [202]. This is why movement ability and movement skills depend first and foremost on the level of wielded action.

Movement skill – this is a level of wielded action, during which the directing of the movement happens automatically, that is it does not require specific direction or attention [201].

In the teaching of sports exercises the end goal is the maturation of movement skills or movement ability, developed by habit, in the process of targeted activities in which composite parts are done automatically, without specific direction and attention, but under the control of the consciousness. The knowledge of consistent natural patterns, connections with which form movement ability and skills, give the possibility of effective building of the training process. By the definition of L. P. Matveev (1976), “movement ability is one of the typical forms of realization of movement possibilities of the human being, and it is expressed in the ability to realize movement actions on the basis of non-automated (or not yet brought to a significant level of automation) targeted operations.” [202] The range of movement of a movement skill is limited to a certain range and is not the same in different exercises. It is enough to forget some kind of detail, and the correctness of the movement is ruined, and during a break of several weeks ability can completely disappear. This is why the quality of skills depends on the capabilities of the trainees and on the conditions in which those movement skills are formed. In the beginning of the teaching of a movement skill, the suddenness of new stimulus must be limited, that is stereotypic and constant conditions must be created. Solidity in the teaching of a movement skill is achieved by repetition and vital reinforcement – the evaluation of precise performance of the movement. Essential conditions include a sequencing of phases,  autonomic functions of the organism, providing the possibility for the competition of essential movements.

Movement ability and skills in some meaning mutually flow into one another. For this reason it would be untrue to absolutely differentiate them. With that, it’s also important to keep in mind their particular qualities, their irreducibility to one another and their unequal importance in everyday life, and in physical training. Movement skill, the highest step of wielding motor actions, has an exclusively bigger meaning in physical culture-sport practice.

6.4 Structure of teaching motor actions

The biggest goal of teaching motor actions depends on the characteristics and features of the actions, and also on the specific physical qualities and required level of their manifestation. Movement ability and movement skills appear both in the process and in the result of slowly mastering movement actions. Since movement actions, formed on the path of multiple repetitions and taken to a level of automation, turns into a movement skill, the central nervous system undergoes three flow phases of nervous processes (excitation and braking).

In the first phase there is a unification of different elements of movement of a holistic movement. During the first attempts of completing a new movement action, the core of the brain-head (brain) undergoes an excitation in the nervous centers, providing the completion of the given movement, and neighboring centers that don’t participate in the work.

The second phase is characterized by the concentration of excitation, the bettering of coordination and the elimination of unnecessary movement. Here you can begin to talk about the formation of movement ability.

The third phase is characterized by stabilization, a high degree of coordination and automation of the movement. Factually, here in full appear all the signs of a movement skill.

In the teaching of movement actions there is a significant meaning attached to the interaction and transfer of skills that were developed earlier or were formed in parallel. In physical teaching and sport there appears a positive and negative transfer of skills.

Positive transfer – this is an interaction of skills, when earlier formed skills promotes, eases and quickens the process of forming the next skill. The main condition for a positive transfer of skills is the availability of structural similarities in the main phases (separate links) of these movement actions.

Negative transfer – this is an interaction of skills, when, opposite of a positive transfer, the already existing skill makes the process of forming a new movement skill more difficult. This happens when there is a similarity in the preparation phases of two movements but an eventual lack of similarity is present during the actual movement.

The transfer of a skill can have a varied character.

One-way transfer. This happens in those instances, when the forming of one skill promotes the learning of another, but a backwards effect is not found.

Mutual transfer. This is the transfer of skills from one movement action to another, and back.

Indirect transfer. This is a form of transfer, in which earlier formed skills create only favorable conditions for the acquiring of a new one.

The teaching of movement skills and their wielding is an important part of the preparation of an athlete. This happens in a specific methodical progression through several milestones/phases. The work at all levels is characterized by specific and distinctive traits, which find reflection in the features of the obstacles of learning, as well as in the used means and methods.

Limited (part) transfer. This happens in the instances when the structure of the to-be-learned exercises have a great similarity. In this case the transfer of skills occurs in a very narrow range. The principle of structural similarity of the most important phases of the to-be-learned movement is planned in a progression and the continuity of training assignments and the entire system of so-called progression[9] exercises.

The process of teaching can be subdivided into relatively independent and simultaneously interrelated and interdependent links. V. N. Platonov (2004) has identified three milestones of technical preparation of the athlete.

The first milestone – the beginning of learning. In this process there is created a general representation of the motor action and there forms a base level for learning to wield them. The important mechanisms of the movement are studied, there forms a rhythmical structure, base errors are warned against and eliminated.
The second milestone – a deeper learning. The understanding of the regularities of a motor action are detailed, the structure of coordination for the elements of movement are improved, dynamic and kinetic characteristics appear, improved as well is the rhythmic structure, provided their conformity to the individual features of the trainees.

The third milestone – the locking in and further improvement. The skill stabilizes and the variety of suitable movement appropriate to the individual characteristics of the athletes is improved, conditions begin to differ, even during maximal manifestations of movement qualities [147].

G. Shtark (1971), Shnabel (1982) recommend dividing the process of technical preparation into five stages.

1.      The stage of creating the first idea about the movement action and creating installations in order to train it.
The use of verbal and visual methods, under the use of which form installations and new paths of mastering technique. The attention of the athlete is concentrated on the main parts of movement actions and the methods of actually completing them.
2.      The stage of forming the beginnings of ability, coinciding with the first stage of developing the action.
During this stage, the ability to perform the main structure of the movement develops, as well as the slow grasp of technique and the general rhythm of the action. The main way to learn the movement is the method of splitting the exercise into parts, which assumes the division of the exercise into independent parts (phases) and the isolated learning of each consecutive phase in order to unify them.
3.      The stage of forming a complete movement of the exercise.
The pedagogic process is aimed at the study of the pieces of an exercise. Attention is paid to methods, based on the perception of the exercise. In this stage, the rational kinetic and dynamic structure of the movement is formed.
4.      The stage of the stabilization of the skill matches the phase of locking in the movement action. Based on how the rational system of movements is locked in, the characteristics of the skill are determined and the automation and stabilization of the exercise occurs. The pedagogic riddle concerns itself with the stabilization of the movement and the improving of the individual pieces. This stage of technical improvement is linked with the process of developing movement qualities, with both tactical and psychological preparation.
5.      The stage of achieving a state of variable skill and its manifestation covers an entire period.
Thanks to the application of this stage in different conditions and functional states of the organism, the variable skill is developed [147].
     
            Since in the majority of cases, it is impossible to complete a complex movement on the first try, it is absolutely necessary to use a method of partial exercise. However, the given method is only used in the case that it is possible to distinguish relatively independent parts of the movement on the basis of a qualified analysis of the exercise. This analysis can often be done with the use of customized exercise-assignments. The partials method during the first stages of training will help overcome the psychological barrier (to learning new lifting movements), minimizes stress on the body, and also allows the trainee to avoid locking in significant movement errors. These errors (according to the classifications of V. V. Belinovicha, 1991) include:

1.      Errors in specific movements and general errors (bad posture, etc.).
2.      Individual errors and complex ones (the appearance of one error invites after it a whole host of others).
3.      Non-automated errors and automated.
4.      Significant errors (rough) and non-significant ones (small), that is, errors that don’t disrupt the structure of the movement.
5.      Typical errors (characteristic of everyone) and not typical (individual). The earlier possible mistakes are described and explained, the easier it will be to identify the causes of their origin. Most typical causes are connected to the following:
a.       an incorrect understanding of the given assignment;
b.      a lack of physical preparation;
c.       a lack of confidence in personal strength, indecision;
d.      a negative influence from previously-learned movements;
e.       discrepancies in the training location, inventory and equipment;
f.       the disruption of training demands and organization, which leads, in part, to premature fatigue.

There exist some rules for the fixing of errors:
1.      The error must be correctly explained.
2.      Errors are fixed in the right order, by the degree of their significance.
3.      The directions for fixing errors must be appropriate for the abilities of the trainee in the given movement.
4.      Upon the appearance of errors, that have already been paid attention to before, it is vital to use the same exercises that helped eliminate the error before.
5.      It is clearly unacceptable to visually imitate the errors made by the trainee. To create a more clear presentation of the error, it is useful to imitate it in comparison with the correct movement [202].
Only after the understanding of the parts of the movement and the warning against errors, does it become vital to transfer to the method of learning the entire movement.

Characteristic errors during the completion of exercises.
Significant deviation or a distortion of the actual structure of an entire movement, or the individual parts from the given example are called errors in the process of performing the exercise. Besides, this deviation negatively impacts the effectiveness of performing the exercise due to difficulties that appear, which get in the way of realizing the movement possibilities and physical qualities of the athlete. Distortion of the movement structure of the exercise are caught by the trainer, judge and athlete, by detecting the change in the body of the athlete, his or her different parts and the barbell during the lift. These changes are characterized by kinetic components: amplitude, speed, acceleration, rhythm and so on. In other words, we see the kinematics of the movement, which is as follows from the interaction of the strength of the athlete and with the always-acting forces of weight, inertia, resistance, strain and friction. The completing of competition exercises in powerlifting is a clear example of the fact that dynamics are the cause of kinematics. And since the cause lies in dynamics, then the trainer and athlete should, first and primarily, review and understand the strength structure of the movement. Rational lifting technique, as it is known, highlights how vital it is to pay close attention to the details of doing the lifts [202].
To complete a movement correctly from the first try, without errors in normal circumstances, as a rule, is not possible. This event greatly complicates the process of learning the movement. Some errors are due to the laws, forming the movement skill, others are connected to the lack of visual examples, third – with not following the given conditions, and so on. Success in learning a lift in great part depends on how correctly the causes of occurring errors are identified and how well the methods of fixing the error correspond to the true causes of the error’s appearance. The most common errors typically fall into the following categories:
·         The addition into the movement act of extra, unneeded movements;
·         The learning or locking-in of movements that are incompatible with muscle strength;
·         The unnecessary involvement of additional muscle groups;
·         A deviation from the correct direction or amplitude of a movement;
·         The distortion of the general rhythm of the movement;
·         The completion of the movement at a not-fast-enough speed.
To heighten the effectiveness of learning movements and to prevent errors, it is important to mind the regulations in their performance. The main parameters in these regulations are the number of repetitions and the intervals of rest between them. The concrete characteristics can be themselves different, since they are determined by many factors (the difficulty of the movement, the stage of learning/development, the individual capabilities of the athlete, and so on). In all cases it is recommended to remember and follow the following general rules:
·         The number of repetitions of a new movement is determined by the capability of the trainee to improve with every new attempt;
·         A second performance with the same errors is a signal to break for a rest and to think on your actions;
·         Intervals of rest should provide the optimal readiness for the completion of another attempt – physically and psychologically.
·         To continue learning a movement under severe fatigue is to no purpose and even harmful;
·         Breaks between training must be as short as possible, so that the trainee does not lose already-acquired abilities and skills.

Factors contributing to the development of movement errors.
Most of the errors that are found in the completion of movement assignments (problems?) carry a natural character, that is are due to natural laws of the beginnings of forming a movement action. But another reason could be in the lack of methodical teaching. The success of teaching in large part depends on how correctly the sources of errors are identified and how well paths of prevention and fixing work.

The main causes of distortion and deviations of a movement action are typically:
1.      An incorrect or incomplete full visualization of the structure and movement parts of the lift being trained;
2.      An incorrect or incomplete full understanding of the movement assignment;
3.      A lack of movement experience of the trainee;
4.      A lack of physical preparation.
5.      Being unsure of yourself, fear, feeling fatigued, etc.;
6.      An incorrect organization of the process of learning a movement.

In this way, a variety of movement actions form in the course of a person’s life under the influence of many factors, and the process of their forming can obtain different characteristics. Optimization of this process is achieved in the conditions of rationally constructed training. The inner logic of the teaching process and the realization of movement actions in such conditions is typically schematically presented as a linear transformation from knowledge and visualization of the movement to an ability to perform it, and finally – from an ability to a skill.

To organize the first teaching attempt of movement skills for a professional, it is vital to create a correct and full basis of orientation, which provides the possibility for completing all actions undertaken by the athlete without error.




[1] The difference between training and teaching refers to a coach teaching and a trainee repeating the exercise (training).
[2] Problems in the “math problem” sense.
[3] The text lists two different kinds of problems: educational in the learning knowledge sense and educational in the learning skills sense. Again, problems are of the “math problem” variety.
[4] Meaning occasional.
[5] Meaning not only does the athlete recover, but he returns stronger than before.
[6] Factually correct.
[7] Abilities in the sense of possibly unique strengths.
[8] Meaning qualities like self-reliance, discipline, initiative, etc.
[9] Exercises meant to be done or learned one after the other.